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A Way of Being

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A profound and deeply personal collection of essays by renowned psychologist Carl Rogers

The late Carl Rogers, founder of the humanistic psychology movement and father of client-centered therapy, based his life's work on his fundamental belief in the human potential for growth. A Way of Being was written in the early 1980s, near the end of Carl Rogers's career, and serves as a coda to his classic On Becoming a Person. More philosophical than his earlier writings, it traces his professional and personal development and ends with a prophetic call for a more humane future.

395 pages, Paperback

First published January 1, 1980

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About the author

Carl R. Rogers

115 books1,107 followers
"Experience is, for me, the highest authority. The touchstone of validity is my own experience. No other person's ideas, and none of my own ideas, are as authoritative as my experience. It is to experience that I must return again and again, to discover a closer approximation to truth as it is in the process of becoming in me." -Carl Rogers, On Becoming a Person

DEVELOPED THEORIES - THERAPIES
Person-Centered; Humanistic; Client-Centered; Student-Centered

TIMELINE
1902 - Carl Rogers was born in Oak Park, Illinois.
1919 - Enrolled at University of Wisconsin.
1924 - Graduated from University of Wisconsin and enrolled at Union Theological Seminary.
1926 - Transferred to Columbia.
1931- Earned Ph.D. from Columbia.
1940 - Began teaching at University of Ohio.
1946 - Elected president of American Psychological Association (APA).
1951 - Published Client-centered Therapy.
1961 - Published On Becoming A Person.

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5 stars
1,235 (46%)
4 stars
949 (35%)
3 stars
397 (14%)
2 stars
83 (3%)
1 star
18 (<1%)
Displaying 1 - 30 of 125 reviews
Profile Image for Julia.
292 reviews7 followers
August 6, 2011
I stole this book from my little brother, who took a seminar on existential and humanistic psychology during his last semester of college. Lucky duck!

Anyway, Carl Rogers is badass. I taught Introduction to Psychology this summer for the third time, and whenever we discuss his person-centered approach, I get bemused questions such as, "So he just...listened to his clients? Really listened to them? And it worked?" Well, yes. Essentially, Carl Rogers articulated the idea that what makes a therapist helpful is not how many degrees a therapist has, or how many fancy and completely non-parsimonious theories they espouse, but how well they connect to their clients, and if they can actually provide unconditional positive regard--the idea that a therapist doesn't have to like or condone things that clients do, but does have to accept them as worthwhile human beings, no matter their circumstances or actions. This is not just some warm and fuzzy idea; decades after Rogers first started writing, we now have a strong body of evidence that the type of therapy matters far, far less than how much you like and trust the person you're graciously allowing to help you.

This book is a mash-up of memoir, academic writings (one special treat is hearing him get super sassy while addressing his naysayers in the American Psychological Association after receiving some fancy-schmancy award), and philosophical treatises explicating his perspective. It's really fun. Not "light reading" fun, but I would definitely recommend it if you're a mental health professional, or if you'd like to read something that's continually optimistic about the potential for growth present in all human beings.

Two quick quotes. First, Rogers is all about the freedom that comes from finding and maintaining your own integrity:

"To be a person...this would be painful, costly, sometimes even terrifying. But it would be very precious: to be oneself is worth a high price."

Second, this is Rogers' telling therapists that real therapy requires bravery, on the part of the client, but also on the part of the therapist, as well. I hope I eventually get to a place where this is what I consistently do:

"We are deeply helpful only when we relate as persons, when we risk ourselves as persons in the relationship, when we experience the other as a person in his own right. Only then is there a meeting at a depth that dissolves the pain of aloneness in both client and therapist."
Profile Image for Giovanni Generoso.
163 reviews39 followers
June 9, 2015
Carl Rogers, a giant of psychological history, has here written personal essays - which read almost like a diary - about his way of being which center on authenticity, openness, empathy, gentleness, and love. It is a book about being human, loving oneself, loving others. It was absolutely wonderful and has undoubtedly changed the direction of my studies. Rogers calls his approach a "home-brewed" brand of existentialism that follows in the footsteps of Kierkegaard and Martin Buber, two of my philosophical heroes. This book articulates, in intimate language, Roger's search to feel, to truly feel, what it is like to be a human. He wants to open up space for each of us to actually let ourselves feel all of the things that everybody around us - family, friends, society, school, church, state, government, culture, etc. etc. etc. - teach us we need to suppress, ignore, evade. When we make eye-contact with another human, we're not looking at an object of study, a thing to be fixed, a test-subject, we're looking at a human being; a human with feelings, hurts, desires, fears, aspirations, and everything else that we so often overlook about ourselves. Rogers calls for a complete transformation of how we think about ourselves and others - what we truly desire, underneath the surface, who we are, what hurts us, etc.

My favorite chapter was entitled "Do We Really Need 'A' reality?" In it, Rogers argues that there is no such thing as "a" reality - as if "reality" was a stable concept, the same for all persons, static. He argues instead that there are as many different "realities" as there are humans. We each see and experience things differently. This is a necessary realization we must have in order to think rightly about what's going on in our relationships. People don't see things the same. Things impress themselves upon each person in slightly, often radically, different ways. And this isn't just okay! It's a good thing. It makes life diverse, interesting, risky. We shouldn't force all people to assimilate to one view of things, since that's intellectual dictatorship, but should rather seek to jump into different points of view, growing, changing, learning with one another. Rogers thinks that all we know is what we feel at each moment - and that's the best we can claim. His Pyrrhonian skepticism, and Nietzchean Perspectivism (both of which I've been influenced by, emerge here.

Enough philosophy for now... The book ends with a view toward the future: "The World of Tomorrow and the Person of Tomorrow," as the chapter is called. Rogers calls the Persons of Tomorrow those who are open, willing to learn and change, accepting of others, risk-takers, questioners of the status quo and traditional authority, those who make decisions based on their own thought-through convictions and experience and not the authority of persons or books outside of them, individuals who want to be themselves and to help others be who they are too. It's a beautiful picture, and I have unknowingly been moving in these sorts of directions in my own ways over the past couple of years or so.

Read this book if you want to become yourself. Like I said before, it's far from scholarly - it read like a diary, like a man who is journaling late at night by himself, feeling, with his whole heart and mind, what it is like to be a human being.
Profile Image for Oona.
214 reviews18 followers
August 29, 2007
i am not sure when i first read this book, but i think it was some time in high school (a book i saw from my dad's large collection of philosophy/psychology/mythology books).

as i read this, it inspired me to read more psychology books to motivate me to a better misunderstanding of myself and the world around me.

too bad, i am not "school smart", or else i would become a psychologist (never a psychiatrist!). although, after meeting a random person (indian with half singaporean blood) who said that gandhi did not school his (four) children. for he did not believe in "education" (as a noun), but to be educated (as a verb). with that, i realize i could still be the "psychologist" in a non-traditional way. i only need to still want to learn and be educated (and not be stuck in the place, "education").
23 reviews2 followers
May 18, 2020
It looks like I’m an outlier in giving this 1 star, so I might leave a few lines of explanation. If, like me, you have never read anything else by Rogers, don’t start with this book.
The book is a collected series of disparate chapters by Rogers on his life, theories and encounter group sessions.
The chapters on his life, by and large, didn’t seem to offer much insight and spend a lot of time naming people and places.
The chapters on theory have a bit more content, but are limited to, for example, a chapter of short vignettes, which leaves the feeling that the ideas are better explained elsewhere. I also felt that these chapters were generously sprinkled with a feeling of ‘look how neatly my ideas worked’ and ‘if only everybody did this’ at the expense of actual content.
Ironically, Rogers says at the beginning of the book that he attributes his success in part to the fact that he made low-level testable claims, yet he repeatedly talks about psychic phenomena, the paranormal, and telepathy. If I didn’t know who the author was, I would say the book often reads like it was written by a self-appointed New Age babble-guru, interspersed with the odd psychology reference to sound legit.
There are also multiple chapters on Rogers’ encounter groups. Which is good if you want to read about things like how the workshop staff prepared by ‘letting themselves be’, or how they discussed sexual behaviour before a workshop which then had “an almost telepathic knowledge’ of this. Or you can hear endlessly about how Rogers thinks encounter groups are the key to solving everything from the Israel-Palestine conflict to global hunger.
I’m not going to knock Rogers or people-centred therapy based on this book alone, and clearly his ideas have been extremely influential in the psycho-therapy world. There is of course obvious tremendous value in his approach, but this book was a very underwhelming place to start reading about it.
Profile Image for Jason Dias.
Author 28 books42 followers
November 22, 2017
This is one of a handful of books that changed my life.

I'm just now glancing over my professional library, and I find I have like 8 books on neuropsychology and no interest in that topic. I did a lot of reading that I didn't want to do in graduate school. Rogers saved my life. I read A Way of Being and I cried the whole time. Those tears are the foundation of who I am today.

I didn't cry because the subject matter is sad. I cried because I recognized something in it. I was at the time struggling to become a person, a real person rather than an affectless wooden boy. Rogers shows us what is possible. He shows us a way to empathy, a fascinating journey into the experience of the other. This book is a guidepost towards phenomenology in the abstract and humanity in the concrete.

Towards the end, the narrative falls apart a little. It's hard to read about his panic at the end of his life. And maybe that's necessary, too. He spent so much time listening to the experiences of others and absorbing them gently that maybe we owe it to him to absorb some of his more challenging experiences, too.
1 review1 follower
Read
September 4, 2011
كاتب جامد بيحسسنى انه فى منى كتير اكدلى على معانى كتير كنت عارفه انها صح بس كنت محتاجه حد يأكدلى عليها كنت اتمنى لو اقدر اتعامل معاه واكلمه حد بيحس بالناس اوى وبيهتم لمشاعرهم اتعلمت ازاى احس اللى ورا الكلام وورا الملامح قد ايه ده مهم للناس انك تحس بيهم وتفهمهم وانك لازم تحاول فى حلبمك انه يتحقق ولو مؤمن بفكره لازم تشتغل عليها كويس وتفضل وراها للاخر حتى لو العالم كله وقف ضدك فى الاول لازم تكمل ومتيأسش فى الوسط
Profile Image for Marcus.
66 reviews4 followers
February 20, 2021
Towards the end of Carl Rogers' life, when this book was written, he began to move away from one-on-one psychotherapy and focus more on the community and society at large. There was less a focus on the individual isolated from others, but rather incorporating the individual into a larger whole. This isn't a surprising evolution of Rogers' person-centred humanistic style of interpersonal relationships and shows his desire to affect real change on a global level by the end of his life.

And that's what this book is: it is the story of Carl Rogers' life and works, including autobiographical chapters focusing on the past and present. Then you have middle sections that expand on some of his previous works, but with surprising personal additions that give insight into Rogers' himself on a more personal level. What significantly added to his own personal growth across his vivid life? The book ends with a final vision of an idyllic future, with the ideal characteristics of 'the person of tomorrow' listed as a precursor to a paradigm shift that, I believe, we are witnessing even more clearly in 2021 than when this was written in the 1980s.

Rogers was always an optimistic person. He believed that the individual was good at its core, that one always strove for growth and actualisation of their own self; and I love this about his humanistic approach. This book asks the question: are we capable of bringing a more feeling-centred, authentic, open and real self into our interpersonal relations with others? Are schools, corporations, and governments able to allow more congruence in the way they function? Are we about to witness an era where our false masks are peeled off, ever so slightly? Are we going to allow communities to flourish and slowly edge away from the over-individualised nature of our modern societies—which, as we know, has made loneliness and isolation common modern afflictions that have revealed a mental health crisis that was previous suppressed and hidden?

We can only hope that even a slither of Rogers' optimistic future becomes a reality. For now, we can at least focus on become persons in our own right and positively affecting those we meet along our life journey. As you can see from countless examples in this book, one positive interaction can significantly impact another person's life, causing a future ripple effect that can affect countless others.

Let's keep throwing pebbles into that pond and keep hoping.
Profile Image for Leanne Hunt.
Author 7 books45 followers
June 25, 2013
This book was recommended to me as supplementary reading for a counselling skills course. As a result, I came to it already familiar with the basic principles of Rogerian therapy and a high appreciation for Carl Rogers' approach to individuals and groups. He believed that people have within themselves the resources and insight to chart their own destiny in life, and that all they need is to be reminded of their personal power in order to take it back and solve their own problems. The book itself is a collection of papers delivered over many years and in many contexts. It addresses a variety of themes, including the development of the person-centred approach, education and challenges facing the future human. It is written in an academic style with references to other authors and books, which makes it slightly heavy going for the lay reader, but the content is well laid out and relatively easy to grasp. I found many of the anecdotes heartwarming and inspiring, confirming my belief that the person-centred approach is both kind to clients and personally demanding of counsellors, so that what emerges is a conversation built on genuineness and respect. This is a book I will probably come back to again when I have gained more counselling experience because it certainly has much to offer beyond what I could grasp on a first reading.
Profile Image for Si-Sena.
85 reviews
January 19, 2023
If you're interested in reading about Rogers' personal experiences, this will satisfy you. If you already know some of his ideas and are looking for finding out more of them with more depth, this is not for you.
On the other hand, having great ideas and writing a book are totally different blessings and it's evident here. This should be considered as a reflection of thoughts rather than a typical book.
Nonetheless, Carl Rogers is an important name in psychology and he will keep being that for sure. His ideas of communication and possibilities-beyond-our-reality are priceless. It's also tremendously disappointing to realise that, even after over 40 years, the way he wished humanity to have found by now is not being paved but going downhill.

So, this is not a skipping stone that will take you much further but could be a good start for learning about Carl Rogers.
Profile Image for Tereza Vítková.
72 reviews4 followers
March 7, 2022
Odkládám v polovině – řada konceptů se shoduje s myšlenkami prezentovanými v On Becoming a Person (na což nedám dopustit). Pokud někoho zajímá hlubinná psychologie a psychodynamika, pak je to fajn addition k předchozí knížce.
Sdílím jednu Yalomovu myšlenku z předmluvy, která mi uvízla v hlavě, a často na ní myslím:
--A story is told about the Swiss sculptor Alberto Giacometti, whose leg was broken in a traffic accident. While lying in the street, waiting for the ambulance, he was heard to say, “Finally, finally, something has happened to me.” I know exactly what he meant.--
Profile Image for Shelby M. (Read and Find Out).
638 reviews129 followers
August 15, 2017
This was excellent. I started out loving it, though it got a bit dry around the middle. Each chapter is essentially a different essay by Rogers, so my enjoyment varied per chapter. I found the last chapter, The World and the Person of Tomorrow, to be particularly moving.
Profile Image for Carey P.W..
Author 2 books179 followers
June 9, 2023
I knew that the person-centered approach was the fit for me when I first entered my counseling program in 2020. I finally got around to reading this wonderful book.

As the current treasurer for the Center for Studies of the Person, I was impressed with all the work the center did with Rogers to promote the person-centered approach in schools and elsewhere. I had no idea that the center was involved in these projects. Also, Rogers notes that he was not looking for followers. He wanted people to take the person-centered approach and use it the way that they saw fit. In other words, he wanted people to be themselves, not another Rogers. I found this notion comforting because I learn a lot of theoretical approaches in my work, but at the end of the day, there's no other counselor like me. To be authentic, I must be myself. That cannot be replicated, nor can someone be another Carl Rogers. The key takeaway for me is to be real and true to myself.
Profile Image for chloë cannon .
36 reviews1 follower
November 27, 2023
this book is very different from books I normally read, but one I find one of the most beautiful. I found myself wanting to memorise every word in able to really learn and grow as a person. The first time I read something and felt the need to pick up a highlighter and annotate. By the end the ink was dry and packets empty but I was not. It made me think and accept and listen. I loved this book and I believe Its definitely changed my perspective on a lot of things and confirmed others. Maybe it’s my interest in phychology as a whole but wow What a brilliant man! Can’t wait to learn more :)
Profile Image for Ella.
182 reviews5 followers
January 1, 2018
The book is a collection of Rogers’ papers done on different aspects of his person centred approach, organised into three main sections: personal experiences and perspectives, the person centred approach in psychotherapy, and it’s application in education.

The first noticeable quality of his writing is the clarity of it. The wordings are precise, the logic coherent, and even the slightest confusion over what he meant is almost not possible. The clarity is so noticeable that it naturally reminds me of other psychology books I’ve read and how I can not say the same about them. It’s almost as if Rogers knew where ambiguity may take roots and nipped them in the bud before they had a chance. He writes like who he is, a humanistic scientist. To the point and flow of the logical mind.

Secondly, I am taken back by his openness and honesty. He talks about parts of his own life - especially how he decided not to dedicate all his time to care for his wife when she was battling with illness at the end of her life, for his own well being, for his survival. He talks about how it has affected their marriage at the end, how she struggled to make peace with it. This wasn’t the only example of his honesty but one of the most outstanding one in my eyes. This was where I started to believe that he really is what he preaches - a believer in the freedom of one’s being, in its congruency and openness, free from judgement and social and cultural pressure of one perceived reality.

Then, the thing I love the most about this book is that it opens a new door for me, a door of person centred approach. I completely agree with this philosophy and I am grateful that he points it all out for me, going into practical details like what is real listening, what is real empathy, the elements of modern loneliness, how and what provides for behaviour change and more. I love how he challenges the idea of one reality. I love his analysis on the case of Ellen West. These are precious lessons one can never get enough of. They liberate one from confusion and suffering. They save lives.

I gave it 4 rather than 5 star because one, I wasn’t sure why the Brazil encounter group experience was put under the 3rd section of education. Though it involves a big group but it seems more appropriate to me to have it under section 2. Two, for some reason, I was growing restless and found it hard to concentrate in the last chapter where he talks about the future of humanity and his philosophy. Three, which is probably the key reason, I find myself reading too much of the same idea in different chapters. Not to the point that I became impatient, but enough to want to skip it sometimes.



Profile Image for David.
15 reviews2 followers
June 3, 2020
This was hard to put down. Rogers reflects on a life of developing and testing the kinds of hypotheses that one might expect from an INFP - that relationships, therapy, and leadership can be more successful when approached with empathy, warmth, and genuineness. His vision often starts out seeming untenably-vast (such as reciprocal causation in self-actualization), but his conscientiousness and honesty end up making it persuasive.

For me, the most interesting issue is congruence. Rogers observes that "organismic" drives can sometimes be counterproductive to self-actualization and that "hard-headed" science can suffer from inefficiency and theory-induced blindness. But when he argues for a synthesis of the two, there isn't much insight as to how it can be achieved. Yalom, Rosenberg, and others have been more satisfying in that area.
Profile Image for Simon Lee.
Author 2 books7 followers
July 16, 2021
The clue is in the title, but nevertheless, I was surprised by how far removed from the practical application of person-centred skills this book is. Here we have a contemplative Rogers, living out his twilight years with a look back at the impact of the person-centred approach. The significance of the title is apparent however in the latter chapters of the book, where a Rogers from 40 years ago speculates with uncanny accuracy what a sea change in humanity's outlook on life and the Earth's future could look like. A lot of things he speaks about are happening now, albeit not with the rapidity and conviction he would have liked.
A must read for anyone interested in social science, psychology, self-help and of course, person-centred theory.
Profile Image for Joe.
113 reviews4 followers
September 22, 2009
This book is a collection of speeches and writings from Carl Rogers reflecting on his extensive experience in Psychology. He has had a big influence on the world of psychology in moving away from a prescriptive approach (I know what's best for you) to a non-directive approach (let the patient lead). It's very interesting and has certainly been a model of application in my own pastoral training. He makes reference to eastern philosophies of leadership which I also find fascinating - this sense of leading not through control, rather enabling a person or group to claim their own identity and their own path.
Profile Image for JY Tan .
109 reviews14 followers
July 21, 2019
I hesitant to say that I finished this, because I very clearly skimmed and skipped several chapters due to the repetitive nature of the essays, particularly considering that I have finished On Becoming A Person (which is one of my all time favourite book). In retrospect I am not convinced that this book added any particular depth that was missing from On Becoming A Person, aside from more vignettes about group work and a person centred approach to the classroom. The premise is fundamentally still the same.

Maybe I wasn’t reading this at the right time. May revisit in a later stage of life.
Profile Image for Tuğçe Güçlü.
48 reviews1 follower
June 27, 2020
Kişi odaklı yaklaşımı öğrenmek için elinize aldığınız kitabı bir sürü kafa karışıklığı ile bitiriyorsunuz.
Kitap kesinlikle bir düzen takip edilerek yazılmamış.
Her bölüm birbirinden çok bağımsız,bölüm içerisinde de biraz ondan biraz bundan ama asla amacına hizmet etmeyen bir derlemeyi okumaya çalışıyorsunuz.
Profile Image for Teriteriri.
41 reviews5 followers
January 17, 2021
"...je to velice skličující zážitek naprostého osamění. Nyní již věřím tomu, že takové pocity mohou u některých lidí způsobovat psychózy. Vzdávají se naděje, že se někdy taky najde člověk, který by jim porozuměl. Avšak v okamžiku, kdy se této naděje vzdali, stal se jejich vnitřní svět, stále bizarnější, jediným světem, v němž mohou žít."
Profile Image for Dan.
39 reviews1 follower
March 14, 2019
A few excellent insights surrounded by rubbish.
Profile Image for Mellania Sog.
1 review
April 20, 2020
I didn’t know it was possible for a book to speak so directly to my soul.

That’s all I can say for now as I’m still... awestruck.
Profile Image for Mwai.
15 reviews3 followers
October 8, 2023
So psychologically insightful and meaningful in a personal way and universal way.

Came across this book from Jordan B. Peterson's list of recommended books. Suffice it to say I'm really glad I did.
6 reviews1 follower
July 22, 2020
Becoming a person paved the way, a way of being did the rest
Profile Image for William Schram.
1,988 reviews86 followers
March 7, 2018
There isn't much I can say about this book that isn't already in the blurb. The book has four major parts and these parts are further divided into chapters. The first part talks about his personal experiences and retrospectives on reaching certain age-related milestones. The second part discusses his approach to his work. The third part discusses education and it's future. The fourth and final part discusses Dr. Rogers' personal ideal scenario of the future.

In my own experience, I had heard of Dr. Rogers before but had never read anything by him. Mostly I heard of him when other writers would reference his work, but I don't remember any particular cases.

I enjoyed this book quite a bit, yet it seemed lacking in some indescribable way. It isn't as though I had any expectations from this book since I had heard of the author through other sources, but I suppose I wanted something that would impress me a bit more. What I mean is that the ideas present in this book have become more accepted in recent times. Dr. Rogers worked against the grain for much of his career and put a lot of dogma about psychotherapy and psychology on its head. Now it just seems like treating a patient as an object would be anathema.

So then, either Dr. Rogers was far ahead of his time or I merely don't notice the mediocre practitioners that exist out there.
November 1, 2023
I don’t try to control a sunset. I watch it with awe as it unfolds. I like myself best when I can appreciate my staff member, my son, my daughter, my grandchildren, in this same way.


En mer personlig oppfølger On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy. Publisert nesten 20 år senere, men essensen er den samme personsentrerte innstillingen til både terapi og til livet generelt som Rogers grunnla og var en forkjemper for gjennom hele livet. Til tider er den nesten skrevet som en memoar, og Rogers gjør seg selv sårbar når han ser på hans egne forsøk på å leve etter egne prinsipper, både med stor og liten suksess.

Samtidig inneholder den noe av den samme problematikken som trakk en stjerne fra den første. I noen kapitler skriver Rogers for et bredt publikum, mens han i andre blir i overkant fiksert på smalere prosjekter med et mindre publikum, spesielt når det gjelder "person-centered workshops" som han viet mye av sine senere år til. Rogers hadde åpenbart mye han ønsket å kommunisere ut i sine senere år, men noe av det kunne nok med hell vært separert til ulike bøker eller forskningsartikler.
Profile Image for Aaron Michael.
679 reviews1 follower
November 3, 2023
Humanistic vs. Behavioristic Psychology

Choice, will and purpose versus behaviorism, determinism, conditioning

“…the basic difference between a behavioristic and a humanistic approach to human beings is a philosophical choice. This certainly can be discussed, but cannot possibly be settled by evidence. If one takes Skinner… then the environment, which is part of a causal sequence, is the sole determiner of the individual's behavior

“My experience in therapy and in groups makes it impossible for me to deny the reality and significance of human choice. To me it is not an illusion that man is to some degree the architect of himself. I have presented evidence that the degree of self-understanding is perhaps the most important factor in predicting the individual's behavior. So for me the humanistic approach is the only possible one. … Choosing the humanistic philosophy… means an approach to social change based on the human desire and potentiality for change, not on conditioning. It leads to a deeply democratic political philosophy rather than management by an elite. So the choice does have consequences.”

If the extreme behaviorist position is true, then everything an individual does is essentially meaningless, since he is but an atom caught in a seamless chain of cause and effect. On the other hand, if the thoroughgoing humanistic position is true, then choice enters in, and this individual subjective choice has some influence on the cause-and-effect chain.
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